The southern royal albatross usually pairs for life, with new pairs performing elaborate courtship displays that include actions like 'bill-circling', 'sky-pointing', 'flank-touching' with the bill, and full spreading of the wings, typically accompanied by a variety of calls (6). Breeding occurs every two years, if successful, with breeding birds returning to their nesting grounds from late October to mid-November (6) (7) (8). Previously mated pairs usually use the same nest site from season to season (6). The male arrives at the nest-site a few days before the female to defend the territory from other males and rebuild or start building a new nest (6). One egg is laid in November to December and incubated by both parents for 79 days (6) (7) (8). Chicks hatch in February to March and usually fledge eight months later from October to December (8). Juveniles do not return to their natal colony until four to eight years of age, but these long-lived birds do not begin breeding until nine to eleven years (6) (7). The southern royal albatross feeds mainly on surface shoaling fish and squid, supplemented by crustaceans and carrion, which are mostly hunted at night (2) (6) (7).

With a wing-span of over three metres, this enormous black and white albatross is amongst the largest birds in the world and thoroughly deserving of its majestic name (2) (5). Individuals are mostly white, with black tips to the wings and tail, and have a faintly pinkish bill with black edging on the upper beak (5). The southern royal albatross can be distinguished from the northern royal albatross (Diomedea sanfordi), by its slightly larger size and more extensive white on its upper wing (2) (6).

New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone, Western South Pacific

Diomedea epomophora breeds on Campbell Island (99% of the total population), on Adams, Enderby and Auckland Islands (Auckland Islands group), and on Taiaroa Head (Otago Peninsula, South Island), New Zealand. The Campbell population is estimated at 7,800 breeding pairs¹⁴. In 2001, 69 pairs were present on Enderby¹¹, and c.20 breed on Auckland and Adams Islands combined¹. No pure-bred D. epomophora are present at Taiaroa Head^2,6. The species circumnavigates the Southern Ocean after breeding¹, but is most commonly recorded in New Zealand and South American waters³. Breeding adults forage from the South Island southwards to the Campbell Plateau⁷ and north to the Chatham Rise. Non-breeding birds forage on the west and east coast of South America¹², generally between 30-55°S¹⁴. Whole island censuses on Campbell Island in 1994-1995 and study plot censuses in 1996-1997 indicate that the population is likely to be stable, or possibly increasing⁹.

The range of Diomedea epomophora extends throughout the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere. Two subspecies of D. epomophora are recognized today. Northern royal albatrosses (D. e. sanfordi) commonly nest on Campbell Island and the Auckland Islands. Southern royal albatrosses (D.e. epomophora) nest almost exclusively on the Chatham Islands, located hundreds of miles east of New Zealand. After breeding, the species may circumnavigate the Southern Ocean, though it is most commonly sighted in New Zealand and South American waters. It has never been recorded north of the Equator.

Biogeographic Regions: neotropical (Native ); australian (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )

Breeding occurs on Adams, Enderby and Auckland Islands (Auckland Islands group), Campbell Island, and on Taiaroa Head (Otago Peninsula, South Island), New Zealand (2). This otherwise pelagic species is most commonly recorded in New Zealand and South American waters in the non-breeding season, but may circumnavigate all the way around the Southern Ocean (2) (5).

Considered the largest seabird and amongst the largest of all birds capable of flight, D. epomophora is most recognizable by its remarkably long, slender, knife-like wings. It can have a wingspan of over ten feet. It weighs 9000 g on average and is 107 to 122 cm long. There are two subspecies of D. epomophora, however, differences in appearance are minimal. Both are predominantly white, with faint pinkish bills. Northern royal albatross (D. e. sanfordi) are considerably smaller and have entirely black upper wings. Southern royal albatross (D. e. epomophora) have predominantly white wings with black markings near the wing tips. There is little sexual dimorphism within the species, and males tend to be only slightly larger than females.

Average mass: 9000 g.

Range length: 107 to 122 cm.

Range wingspan: 305 to 351 cm.

Average wingspan: 325 cm.

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial
• Marine

Nearly 80 percent of a royal albatross' life is spent directly exposed to the cold, treacherous, open oceans of the Southern Hemisphere. Remote tropical islands are sought out for nesting. They typically nest on slopes with tussock grass providing some shelter, though exposed sites are also common as they ease the often difficult tasks of take-off and landing.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial ; saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: pelagic ; coastal

Depth range based on 50 specimens in 1 taxon.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 50 samples.

Environmental ranges
  Depth range (m): 0 - 0
  Temperature range (°C): -0.767 - 7.284
  Nitrate (umol/L): 13.851 - 28.640
  Salinity (PPS): 33.654 - 34.115
  Oxygen (ml/l): 6.773 - 8.188
  Phosphate (umol/l): 1.240 - 1.909
  Silicate (umol/l): 5.034 - 75.155

Graphical representation

Temperature range (°C): -0.767 - 7.284

Nitrate (umol/L): 13.851 - 28.640

Salinity (PPS): 33.654 - 34.115

Oxygen (ml/l): 6.773 - 8.188

Phosphate (umol/l): 1.240 - 1.909

Silicate (umol/l): 5.034 - 75.155
 
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.

The southern royal albatross spends most of its time soaring over the open oceans, and only comes to land to breed (5). Nesting typically occurs on tussock grassland slopes, ridges and plateaus (2).

Royal albatross are carnivorous. They eat mainly cephalopods (Moroteuthis ingens, Kondakovia longimana, Hisioteuthis atlantica), fish (Macruronus novaezelandiae), and some crustaceans. Due to their lack of maneuverability, an albatross rarely picks up prey in flight. Instead, they sit on the water and use a method known as surface-seizing. Occasionally, they make shallow plunges. Most of their hunting, particularly for squid, is done at night.

Animal Foods: fish; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans

Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore , Molluscivore )

Because of their generally solitary lifestyle and the wide expanse of territory they cover, royal albatross have little impact on their surroundings. Royal albatross are predators located at the top of the food chain. Due to the small population size of royal albatross, populations of their prey are left relatively unaffected.

Due in part to their large size and solitary lifestyle, both in the air and on secluded islands, royal albatross have no known predators. Humans have been a threat in the past, but recent, stricter penalties for killing royal albatross have helped populations remain stable.

Diomedea epomophora preys on:
Actinopterygii
Mollusca
Crustacea

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

Elaborate displays are done by males and females to form pair-bonds. Actions like 'Bill-circling', 'Sky-pointing', 'Flank-touching' with the bill and the spreading of the wings are involved in courtship. These displays are typically accompanied by a variety of calls. This form of communal dancing usually takes place on land but on occasion it can occur at sea. Royal albatross are usually silent at sea but can become rather vocal when competing for food, especially around fish boats. Croaking, shrieking, and gargling sounds are the most common sounds made during competition for food. As a threat to intruders, a highly characteristic rattling sound can be produced by clappering the bill quickly and repeatedly.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic

Royal albatross are remarkably long-lived when considering that the vast majority of their lives are spent over the perilous southern oceans. The adult mortality rate is 3 percent per year. In the wild, a royal albatross was known to have lived to over 58 years. It is possible that some birds may reach an age of 80 years.

Range lifespan

Status: wild: 58 (high) years.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 58.0 years.

Maximum longevity: 58 years (wild)

Royal albatross pair for life. 'Divorce' is rare and typically only occurs after several failed breeding attempts, under normal conditions only death can split a pair. Royal albatross have extensive and varied courtship displays that include actions like 'Bill-circling', 'Sky-pointing', 'Flank-touching' with the bill, and full spreading of the wings. In many cases, these rituals are done and a pair is formed in the season prior to breeding. An elaborate courtship is unnecessary for birds that have bred together in the previous year. Previously mated pairs usually use the same nest-site as the year before. Typically, the male arrives a few days before the female. A few greeting ceremonies are performed upon the arrival of the female, and shortly thereafter, they breed. Breeding is biennial (occurs every two years), due in part to the long incubation period. As a result, there is no replacement egg laying, forcing a pair to wait until the following season to re-nest if their egg is lost.

Mating System: monogamous

Royal albatross reproduce once biennially, breeding starts in October. Without fail, only one egg is laid. Eggs weigh between 205 to 487 g, about 5 to 11 percent of the body weight of the mother. Incubation lasts 79 days. Chicks have white down and their coloration is similar to that of adults. Chicks fledge after about 240 days, at this point, the chick simply flies off on its own. Sexual maturity is reached in 9 to 11 years.

Breeding interval: Biennial

Breeding season: Breeding begins in October

Average eggs per season: 1.

Average time to hatching: 79 days.

Average fledging age: 240 days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 9 to 11 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 9 to 11 years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization

Having arrived to the nest-site first, the male defends the territory against other males and rebuilds or starts building a new nest while he waits for his partner. When the female arrives a few days later, the birds briefly display then copulate. Immediately afterwards, both return to sea where they feed and begin to build up a reserve of food. Both birds return to the nest shortly before the egg is laid. The female lays the egg then immediately retreats to the sea. The male is left to incubate the egg until the female returns, sometimes leaving the male without food or water for 2 to 3 weeks. When the female returns to the nest, the male leaves to find food and regain his strength. This pattern continues until the egg hatches and the chick no longer needs to be brooded, this usually takes six weeks. At this point, both parents leave to find food but return daily to feed their chick a meal of partly digested fish, squid, and stomach oil that adults produce during the ordinary digestion of their food. The oil is rich in fats and helps provide the nutrients necessary for the chick to grow despite long spans without food. The growing chick wanders around the nest-site between visits, but must return to the nest to be fed. After a few brief failures, the chick simply flies away to start life on its own.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; altricial ; pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 17
Species With Barcodes: 1

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 2008
  Vulnerable
• 2007
  Vulnerable
• 2005
  Vulnerable
• 2004
  Vulnerable
• 2003
  Vulnerable
• 2000
  Vulnerable
• 1994
  Not Recognized
• 1988
  Not Recognized

Populations declined rapidly in the past due to less stringent requirements on fishing practices. Recent bans in New Zealand waters have required trawlers to replace outdated equipment and implement new, safer methods. Populations have stabilized as a result of these measures. Today, populations are estimated to be 10,000 to 20,000 pairs. Royal albatross are listed as 'Vulnerable' by the IUCN.

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: vulnerable

Classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List 2006 (1), and listed on Appendix II of CMS (3) and Annex 1 of ACAP (4).

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Historically, humans and mammals introduced to previously predator-free islands have caused massive declines in all southern royal albatross populations. Pigs and cats still pose a threat on Auckland Island, where they continue to predate on eggs and chicks. On Campbell and Enderby, Dracophyllum scrub is spreading, possibly due to climatic warming, and may reduce breeding habitat (2). The vast majority of the breeding population now remains on Campbell Island, and although considered stable there, such heavy reliance on this single island leaves the species in a particularly vulnerable position. Albatrosses are notoriously susceptible to becoming entangled in fishing equipment whilst feeding on baited hooks or catch, and this species is no exception (9). The southern royal albatross is frequently caught by Japanese longliners in the high seas and smaller numbers are killed by fisheries in waters off New Zealand, south-western Australia and Tasmania (2).

Conservation Actions

The southern royal albatross is listed on Annex 1 of the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP), a multilateral agreement which seeks to conserve albatrosses and petrels by coordinating international activity to mitigate known threats to these magnificent seabirds (4), and is also listed on Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS), which aims to conserve migratory species throughout their range (3). Cattle, sheep and rats have been removed from Campbell Island, and rabbits and mice have been eradicated from Enderby (2). All the islands on which this species breeds are nature reserves and, in 1998, were declared a World Heritage Site (2). Recent legislation in New Zealand has required trawlers to replace outdated equipment and implement new, safer methods that are less likely to endanger albatrosses and other sea birds (6). However, longline fisheries continue to threaten albatross species around the globe, a problem that urgently needs to be addressed. Nevertheless, as long as the population on Campbell Island remains protected and free from potential predators, the southern royal albatross should continue to soar the Southern Ocean skies for many generations to come.

Because of their inclination to prey on the bait used by trawlers and other fishing boats, many royal albatross were killed in fishing lines and nets. Today, new, more costly methods have been developed and implemented to prevent harm to the birds.

Their oceanic habits and isolated Southern Hemisphere range make royal albatross virtually inaccessible to humans. Because of their mastery of flight, royal albatross have gained worldwide admiration and respect and are sought out by birdwatchers. As a result, killing one for any reason is considered a serious offense.

Positive Impacts: ecotourism