Andean condors roost on cliff faces and use thermal currents to lift off in the morning, and then spend most of the day soaring on updrafts looking for food. These birds scavenge on the remains of sheep, llama, cattle, seals and occasionally newborn animals or the eggs of sea birds. Their excellent eyesight allows them to spot a carcass from several miles away, and these birds are also known to watch the behaviour of other animals or follow smaller scavenger birds to find a carcass (7). Their sharp, curved beaks can easily tear through the flesh and hides of the toughest carcasses (7) (9). Up to 40 birds have been observed together at a single large carcass (2). The Andean condor has a long life, in excess of 50 years, but breeds very slowly (7). Sexual maturity is not attained until seven to eleven years, after which these birds, like all condors, mate for life (7). The male conducts an elaborate courtship display involving drawing the body up and fully extending the wings, as well as making loud tongue clicks, while the reddish skin of the neck becomes bright yellow (8). The female lays a single egg every other year, which both birds take turns to incubate (7) for about 54 to 58 days (8). The young take a lot of time and effort to raise, being unable to fly until they are six months old and reliant upon their parents for up to two more years (2) (7).

As one of the largest flying birds in the world, the Andean condor forms an awesome sight over the South American skies (5), as it soars gracefully on huge, motionless wings (6). These magnificent birds have a glossy black plumage with white flight feathers on the wing (7) and a distinctive downy, white ruff around the neck (8). The bare skin on the head varies in colour, but is usually reddish-pink at the base of the neck, and more mottled greyish-pink or yellow on the head (2). These birds have large feet with powerful claws and sharp, hooked beaks that allow them to easily tear apart their scavenged prey (9). This condor is the only American vulture to show sexual dimorphism, with males possessing a large, fleshy lump on the front of their heads, called a caruncle, and neck wattles that are absent in females (2) (9). Juveniles are a dull brown colour (2).

Vultur gryphus occurs throughout the Andes, in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay south to Argentina and Chile³. It is threatened mostly in the north of its range, and is exceedingly rare in Venezuela and Colombia, where a re-introduction programme using captive-bred individuals is in operation^2,3. A similar project is underway in Argentina¹. Since 2000, declines have continued in Ecuador (c.65 birds in five disjunct populations remain⁶), Peru and Bolivia, but it remains numerous and appears to be stable in northern Argentina⁹. Populations in Venezuela (<30 individuals⁵) and Colombia may be maintained by reintroduction and feeding, but in Colombia at least the population may still be declining. The status of remaining populations is difficult to determine because its mortality, breeding frequency and success are so poorly known³.

Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) inhabit most of western South America in the mountains and deserts ranging from western Venezuela south to Tierra del Fuego. Andean condors can be found in Columbia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, and Argentina. The wild population was thought to be extirpated from Venezuela but is very rarely still seen there.

In an isolated network of mountain peaks in the Andes of Columbia and Ecuador, the population is thought to be in decline. Populations reach much higher densities in the regions south of the Northern Peruvian Low, were they inhabit vast areas of highland prairie, desert, and coastal regions.

Biogeographic Regions: neotropical (Native )

Historic Range:
Colombia to Chile and Argentina

Ranging across the Andes, in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay south to Argentina and Chile (10).

Andean condors have dark feathers in maturity (while juveniles are olive-grey and brown), with a white collar or downy plumage around the base of their necks. They also have white flight feathers on their wings as adults, with those of the male being more pronounced. When extended, the wing tips have gaps between the primaries which is an adaptation for soaring. The head and neck of adult condors are bare of feathers and are generally black to dark reddish brown, while juveniles have much darker skin and young hatchlings have fluffy grey down on their bodies. This baldness is presumably a hygienic adaptation, as the bare skin is easier to keep clean and dry after feeding on carrion. The beak is hooked at the end and functions in tearing rotting meat off a corpse. The bases of their upper and lower mandibles are dark with the rest of the beak being ivory colored. Andean condors weigh between 7.7 and 15 kg and range from 97.5 to 128 cm in length. Their wingspan of 3.2 m is the longest wingspan of any land bird.

Andean condors are the only species in the family Cathartidae that exhibit drastic sexual dimorphism. Unlike many other birds of prey, male Andean condors are considerably larger than the females. Also, males have a large caruncle (comb) and wattle which females lack. Sexes differ in eye color as well, with males having brown irises and females having red. Both sexes have the ability to change the color of the bare skin on their neck and face in association with mood. This is used for communication between individuals and males also use this for displays during mating season.

The feet of Andean condors are much less powerful with shorter blunted talons compared to those of other birds of prey. This adaption is well suited for a lifestyle of walking and scavenging. The hind toe is less developed, but the middle toe is much longer that the other toes. Their feet and legs are covered in circular scales that are dark grey in color.

Range mass: 7.7 to 15 kg.

Average mass: 10.8 kg.

Range length: 97.5 to 128 cm.

Average wingspan: 3.2 m.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes colored or patterned differently; ornamentation

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial
• Marine

Andean condors inhabit mountain and coastal mountain habitat types in the Andean mountains of South America. They have been located at elevations of up to 5,500 m. They prefer areas with wide open spaces which aid in their detection of food. Andean condors roost and nest on cliff faces in small rock ledges or caves. They use the thermals that rise and spiral off of these cliff faces to soar for hours with very little effort, scanning for carrion.

Range elevation: 0 to 5,500 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; mountains

Aquatic Biomes: coastal

Other Habitat Features: caves

Found in high mountains, lowland deserts, open grasslands, along coastlines and in alpine regions (9). Unlike many birds, the Andean condor doesn't build nests, but rather lays its eggs among boulders or in caves or holes (9).

Andean condors may form mutualistic relationships with smaller turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) and black vultures (Coragyps atratus), which forage by smell whereas Andean condors forages by sight. Larger Andean condors are much better adapted at tearing into the tough hide of a fresh kill. The smaller vultures benefit from the labors of the condor and feed on what is left of the newly opened carcass. Within the last century or so there has been an ecological shift in food availability across much of the Andean condors' range as native megafauna species (Llamas, alpacas, rheas, guanacos, and armadillos) are widely being displaced by domesticated animals (cows, horses, sheep, and goats) as well as those introduced for sport hunting (rabbits, foxes, wild boars, and red deer). Andean condors also eat carcasses of whales and other large marine mammals in coastal regions.

Andean condors are primarily scavengers but have been observed to do some hunting of marmots, birds and rabbits. Andean condors lack well developed hunting techniques but may chase and grab at live prey, in which case they begin feeding before the animal is dead. Andean condors hold prey by standing on it, as they lack the strong grasping feet found in most hunting raptors.

When approaching a fresh carcass, Andean condors often start opening the animal near the anus and progress toward the head. One of the first things eaten is usually the liver, followed by the muscle. No significant attempt to open the skulls and eat the brain has been observed.

In the northern reaches of their range, where Andean condors are in sharp population decline, food availability is a problem. One study suggested that this lack of food may increase the condors tendency to forage on road kill which presents a threat of being hit by a passing car.

Animal Foods: birds; mammals; carrion

Primary Diet: carnivore (Scavenger )

Andean condors are some of the largest and most successful avian scavengers on the planet and they serve an important role in the consumption of carrion to help prevent the spread of disease in an ecosystem.

Smaller vultures may have a mutualistic relationship with large Andean condors where the smaller birds locate carrion and provide passive visual cues to the high soaring Andean condors that food is nearby. The larger, more powerful condors usually arrive last to the group and opens up the carcass. This provides the smaller vultures with access to areas that were too tough to exploit on their own. The arrival of Andean condors was observed to cause visible "excitement" among the smaller vultures. Condors' activity of opening up a carcass has been observed to start a "feeding frenzy" among smaller scavengers, in which all normal dominance hierarchies are temporarily ignored.

Ecosystem Impact: biodegradation

Mutualist Species:

• Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura)
• Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus)

Healthy adult condors have no known natural predators. Young chicks may fall victim to large birds of prey or to foxes if the nest is accessible to flightless predators. Eggs may also be lost to predation.

Andean condors nest on high, inaccessible cliff ledges where available but sometimes nest in areas that are more accessible by land. They are known to aggressively display and actively defend the nest site from potential predators, including zoo keepers.

Known Predators:

• Foxes (Vulpes)
• Birds of Prey

Andean condors rely on their sense of sight to detect and locate carrion from thousands of feet in the air. They also may use visual cues from smaller vultures, which use smell to locate food.

Both sexes have the ability to change the color of the bare skin on their neck and face in association with mood. This is used for communication between individuals and males also use this for displays during mating season. Males use face and neck flushing (yellow) as part of their visual courtship displays. Andean condors also use clicking and hissing for communication but they lack a syrinx which is needed to produce more complicated bird calls.

Like all birds, Andean condors perceive their environments through visual, auditory, tactile and chemical stimuli.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Andean condors are long lived birds that mature slowly. Their true maximum lifespan in the wild is unknown but is estimated at around 50 years.

In January of 2010 a wild-born, captive condor died at nearly 80 years old at the Beardsley Zoo in Bridgeport Connecticut.

Range lifespan

Status: captivity: 80 (high) years.

Typical lifespan

Status: wild: 50 (high) years.

Typical lifespan

Status: captivity: 75 (high) years.

Maximum longevity: 75 years Observations: The Andean condor is probably the longest-lived bird. Although reproductive senescence is common amongst birds, the Andean condor shows no signs of it, probably as a consequence of its slow reproduction. In the wild, these animals should live between 25 and 30 years.

A pair of Andean condors may select a nest site and then roost in (or near) it for as much as two and a half months before mating actually begins. As the pair mate and the time draws near to the female laying their egg, they will gradually begin to roost closer and closer to the nest ledge until they are finally roosting overnight inside it.

The mating behavior of Andean condors differs between accounts in zoo settings and the limited observations of wild birds. Accounts of wild birds have been made at great distances without clear views or description of the display or copulatory behavior. The male display can begin with pre-display behavior that includes the male rubbing his head and neck against a tree or post. Also the male has been described to present the female with small twigs and straws that they both lodge in their wing feathers, immediately followed by the object falling to the ground. These behaviors were not observed in all cases, and no definite explanation was offered. It is loosely hypothesized that the stick behavior may be remnant of when the species ancestors were nest builders but no formal studies have been conducted.

In general the male begins to display by spreading his wings and inflating his neck. His neck and wattle, which are normally a dull pinkish-grey color, flush a bright sulfur yellow. He approaches the female with his wings spread and his neck outstretched and arched with his bill pointing down. The male makes small turns to the left and right as he waddles toward the female who also may spread her wings and mimic his movements. The male hisses as he approaches the female, who may reply with low moaning sounds during copulation. The pair may nibble at each other for several minutes and click their bills together. Nibbling can continue during and after copulation.

Courtship and mating seem to be intricately tied to the males role as a dominant partner and the females submissiveness to him, which may account for the variation in observed behaviors from pair to pair, if each pair has a different balance of dominance in the relationship.

Mating System: monogamous

The mating season of Andean condors varies geographically, but is generally from February through June. They are non-migratory so seasonal extremes are very different in the northern and southern extents of their range. Breeding interval is also likely variable depending on the quality of their habitat and the availability of food.

Observations of breeding in Andean condors have been documented in great detail in only a few instances. This makes generalizing their behavior difficult due to variation between observations.

Most Andean condors do not construct a nest and will lay a single egg on the bare, cliff ledge. Some condors will collect a few sticks to scatter around the ledge. Eggs are bluish-white in color, weigh about 280 g, and are 7.6 to 10.1 cm in length. The single egg is incubated for 54 to 58 days, after which an altricial, downy chick hatches. Chicks are tended by both parents until they fledge at 6 to 7 months old. Fledglings remain with their parents until 2 years old, or when pairs breed again. Juveniles do not reach sexual maturity until 6 to 11 years of age.

Breeding interval: Andean condors breed every 2 to 3 years and may be more frequent if food resources are high.

Breeding season: Breeding season is between February and June in Peru, and between October and

Average eggs per season: 1.

Range time to hatching: 2 to 3 months.

Range fledging age: 6 to 7 months.

Range time to independence: 2 to 3 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 6 to 11 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 6 to 11 years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Both sexes participate in incubation of the eggs and feeding the young. The sexes alternate incubation, with one of the pair always at the nest for the first 1 to 2 months. The parents continue alternating time at the nest for an additional month but gradually spent more time off the nest, but near the nest site. Males may forcibly displace females from the egg to take over incubation. Males have also been observed frequently chasing the females out of the nest before and after hatching. Males also feed the young more often than the females do. Parents tend the young well after they fledge at 6 to 7 months of age. Juveniles remain with the parents for an average of 2 years, or until parents breed again.

Parental Investment: altricial ; male parental care ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 0
Species: 7
Species With Barcodes: 1

Andean condors are listed as 'Near Threatened' on the IUCN Red List as they have faced significant population declines in recent years. Threats to Andean condors include habitat loss, lead ammunition ingestion, and persecution by farmers. Even after captive breeding and reintroduction programs, the slow reproduction rate (once every 2 to 3 years) of these birds is slowing population recovery.

Past conservation concerns had to do with the use of lead ammunition for hunting, because condors' digestive systems are harsh enough to absorb large quantities of the lead if ingested from scavenged gunshot kills. There has been much effort to end the use of lead ammunition within the range of Andean condors, but concern still exists.

The ecological replacement of many of Andean condors' native food sources by domestic animals may have unforeseen long term effects on their survival.

CITES: appendix i

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened

Current Listing Status Summary

Status: Endangered
Date Listed: 12/02/1970
Lead Region: Foreign (Region 10) 
Where Listed:


Population detail:

Population location: entire
Listing status: E

For most current information and documents related to the conservation status and management of Vultur gryphus , see its USFWS Species Profile

Classified as Near Threatened (NT) on the IUCN Red List (1), listed on Appendix I of CITES (3) and listed on Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) (4).

Population Trend

Major Threats

The Andean condor is adapted for exceptionally low mortality and low reproductive output, and is therefore highly vulnerable to human persecution, which persists over most of its range (2) (10). The condor is killed for sport and farmers kill them as pests because they mistakenly believe they kill their livestock (7) (9). Additionally, condors have suffered from pesticides that have been carried up the food chain (7) (9) and from poison placed for mammalian predators (8). As this bird mates for life, and shares parental duties, the death of a mate also has a knock-on impact on the other partner and their chick (7).

Conservation Actions

Recovery attempts have been made through captive breeding and reintroduction programmes, which have been moderately successful (7). Captive-bred Andean condors have so far been reintroduced into the wild in Colombia and Venezuela, and early reports indicate that that some of these birds have begun to breed (8). These results are extremely encouraging and provide hope for the successful preservation of this magnificent bird. A similar project is currently underway in Argentina, and there is potential for reintroductions to be made throughout the species' former range (10). However, it is imperative that an education campaign to try to reduce hunting of this bird accompanies such measures, if reintroduced individuals are to be given the best possible chance of survival.

Andean condors tend to feed on large dead animals and occasionally will hunt sick and injured megafauna. Much of the local megafauna in the Andean highlands has been ecologically replaced by domesticated range species such as lamas, cows, horses, sheep, and goats which now constitute a large part of condors' diets. This has led some farmers and ranchers to see them as pest species that harass their livestock. Poisoning was not uncommon over the last hundred years but is now becoming less common due to an increase in public awareness and appreciation of Andean condors as symbols of the region.

Negative Impacts: crop pest

Andean condors have been extremely important as a cultural symbol in the Andes mountains of south America for thousands of years. In the ancient Inca culture of Peru the condor represents one of the three realms of existence, the heavens; while the Jaguar represents the earth and the snake the underworld. These three cultural references appear all over Inca society, including in their architecture. The site of Machu Picchu, which was a royal vacation home, is built in the shape of a condor if viewed from the top of a nearby mountain. There is also a massive stone altar in the site that is shaped like a huge condor with wings spread high.

Andean condors also serve essential roles for humans as important carrion feeders that help limit the spread of disease.

Andean condors are one of the world’s largest flying birds and thus their survival in the native habitat is important for ecotourism in South America. Andean condors are also often found in zoos, being a popular animal to exhibit due to their status. They were also an important learning resource for zookeepers to gain experience with the challenges of captive breeding large condors that was essential to the conservation of critically endangered California condors.

Positive Impacts: research and education