Behaviour The species is fully migratory⁶ or locally dispersive (e.g. in Europe)¹ and breeds from mid-April to early-June³ in single pairs or loose groups¹. Males and non-breeders moult and become flightless for four weeks between June and August (females moulting one month later)⁵ prior to which they may make extensive moult migrations which take them considerable distances from the breeding waters³. Once this post-breeding moult is complete the species departs for its winter quarters, arriving there from October onwards³. The species is highly gregarious for most of the year⁶ and although it is more commonly found in small groups³ it often forms large concentrations^{3, 5} of several hundred individuals⁵ in moulting and wintering areas³. It feeds diurnally, being most active during the early morning and evening². Habitat The species inhabits inland deep fresh or brackish¹ reed-fringed lakes, rivers, or saline and alkaline lagoons² in open country¹, also occurring (less often) on estuaries, river deltas and other sheltered coastal habitats¹ on passage³ or during the winter⁵. Diet The diet of this species consists predominantly of the roots, seeds and vegetative parts of aquatic plants^{1, 4} (e.g. Chara spp.¹, Hippurus spp., hornworts Ceratophyllum spp., pondweeds Potamogeton spp., milfoil Myriophyllum spp.⁴ and especially stonewort Nitellopsis obtusa¹³), although it will occasionally also take aquatic invertebrates¹ (e.g. molluscs)⁴, amphibians and small fish¹. Breeding site The nest is constructed of roots, twigs and leaves near water^{1, 2} on the ground in dense vegetation or on floating mats of vegetation amidst reedbeds⁴. Although the species usually breeds well-dispersed, neighbouring pairs may sometimes nest as close as 30 m apart^{2, 6}. Management information A study in the Czech Republic found that fish ponds with a fish stock density of less than 400 kg ha¹, water transparency of more than 50 cm, mixed fish stocks (e.g. tench and pike or perch) rather than monospecific stocks (e.g. of carp or other herbivorous fish species), and systems that include ponds with fish fry are more likely to have high abundances of aquatic vegetation and are therefore more successful in supporting breeding pairs of this species⁸.

KBPBU060-06|UWBM 56423|Netta rufina| ------------------------------------------TTATATCTTATCTTTGGGGCATGAGCCGGAATAATCGGCACAGCACTC---AGCCTGCTAATCCGCGCAGAACTAGGCCAACCAGGAACCCTCCTAGGTGAT---GACCAGATCTACAACGTAATCGTCACCGCCCACGCCTTTGTAATAATCTTCTTCATAGTGATACCCATCATAATCGGAGGATTTGGCAACTGATTAGTCCCCCTAATA---ATCGGCGCCCCCGACATAGCATTCCCACGAATAAACAACATAAGCTTCTGACTCCTCCCACCCTCATTCCTCCTACTACTCGCCTCATCCACCGTAGAAGCAGGCGCTGGCACGGGCTGAACCGTGTACCCACCCCTAGCAGGCAACCTAGCTCACGCTGGAGCCTCAGTAGACCTG---GCCATCTTCTCACTCCACTTAGCCGGTGTTTCCTCCATCCTGGGAGCTATTAACTTTATCACCACAGCCATCAACATAAAACCCCCCGCACTCTCACAATACCAAACCCCACTCTTTGTCTGATCCGTCCTAATCACCGCCATTCTGCTCCTTCTATCACTACCTGTTCTCGCCGCT---GGCATCACAATACTACTAACCGACCGAAACCTAAACACCACATTCTTTGACCCCGCCGGAGGAGGTGACCCAATCCTGTACCAACACCTATTCTGATTCTTCGGTCATCCAGAGGTCTACATCTTAATCCTC------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 
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Red List Category

Red List Criteria

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The two main threats to this species are habitat degradation¹² (e.g. through land-use changes)² and hunting² (e.g. the species is hunted in France, Portugal and Spain without any official hunting bag monitoring¹²). The species also suffers poisoning from lead shot ingestion (Spain)¹¹ and is occasionally drowned in freshwater fishing nets with mesh sizes greater than 5 cm (China)¹⁰. Deterioration in the water quality of wetlands can reduce the abundance of stonewort Nitellopsis obtusa (which is an important part of the species's diet)¹³, and it is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus⁷. Utilisation The species is hunted recreationally and for commercial purposes in Iran⁹.