Red-necked grebes (Podiceps grisegena) are native to portions of North America, Asia, and Europe. Their precise location within these biogeographic regions depends upon the time of year because they are migratory birds that move between breeding and wintering locations. In North America, during the breeding season, they are found in a region reaching from Alaska in the north, down through western Canada, across central Canada and the northern portion of the mid United States. For the winter season, North American populations of red-necked grebes migrate to the marine waters of the Pacific coast and the Atlantic coast, reaching as far south as California and North Carolina, but the majority of birds remain in the northern portion of the continent for wintering. A fraction of North American birds spend the winter in the Great Lakes region.

In eastern Asia, red-necked grebes breed in a large region that covers most of eastern Siberia and surrounding area. Eastern Asian populations winter along the Pacific coast of Asia and in some large inland lakes in the region.

In Europe and western Asia, red-necked grebes breed in a large portion of northern Europe that stretches from the Netherlands to western Siberia to southern Russia, eastern Kazakhstan, Turkey, and Bulgaria. This population winters off the coasts of the North, Baltic, Caspian, Black, Adriatic, and Aegean Seas. Although rare, some birds winter in the Mediterranean region and northern Iran.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: holarctic

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) Holarctic. Breeding range extends from Alaska and western and south-central Canada south to Washington, Montana, northeastern South Dakota, Minnesota, and rarely elsewhere in northern United States; also Europe and northern Asia. During the nonbreeding season, the range extends coastally from Alaska to southern California and from Nova Scotia to central Florida (mainly north of Chesapeake Bay), casually along Gulf Coast; also in the Old World. Areas of highest winter density in North America include waters around Vancouver Island in the Strait of Georgia and the Bay of Fundy (Root 1988).

Red-necked grebes are relatively large in comparison to other species of grebes. They are 43 to 56 cm long and weigh 800 to 1600 g. Their bills are mostly black, with the exception of the base of the upper mandible and most of the lower mandible, which are orange-yellow or chrome-yellow. Their eyes contain a dark brown iris that is surrounded by a ring of yellow. Like all grebes, this species has lobed feet that they utilize as effective paddles for swimming and rudders for flying. Also, their legs are laterally compressed, which makes them more streamlined when passing through water.

This species has two different plumages depending on whether they are breeding or wintering. Their non-breeding winter plumage is marked by heads topped with black, followed by grey on the sides of the head and a white crescent reaching from the throat upwards to the lower lateral sides of the head. They have white or light gray on the anterior portion of their neck. Observing from anterior to posterior on the body of the bird, the light colors quickly darken to a gray-black; therefore the majority of the bird is dark, with exception of the sides of the head, throat, and anterior portion of the neck. The sides of the head become even lighter as a distinctive pale-gray patch develops in their breeding summer plumage. During this time, as their name suggests, the lateral portions of their neck and breast become a reddish-brown color. The rest of the bird remains relatively similar in color to its non-breeding plumage.

Male and female Red-necked grebes are alike in appearance, but on average males are larger. Juveniles resemble adults in breeding season plumage, with the addition of dark stripes on the cheeks.

On various continents, slight physical variations between populations are observed; therefore two subspecies of red-necked grebes have been identified. The populations that are native to Europe and western Asia are of the subspecies Podiceps grisenega grisegena and the populations of North America and eastern Asia are of the subspecies Podiceps grisenega holboellii. The P. g. grisegena subspecies is smaller and has relatively darker plumage on its back, cheeks, and neck than P. g. holboellii. The bill of P. g. grisegena is longer, slimmer, and not as yellow as the bill of P. g. holboellii.

Range mass: 800 to 1600 g.

Range length: 43 to 56 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; male larger

Length: 51 cm

Weight: 1023 grams

• Terrestrial
• Freshwater
• Marine

Red-necked grebes are predominantly water birds, that is, with the exception of the time spent in migration, they spend nearly all of their time on the water. During the summer breeding season, red-necked grebes typically live and nest on small inland freshwater lakes, shallow marsh areas, and bays of larger lakes. They are also found in more obscure locations, such as irrigation ditches and bogs. The subspecies Podiceps grisegena grisegena tends to make use of smaller and shallower waterbodies that have more surrounding vegetation than those used by P. g. holboellii. During the spring and fall migrations red-necked grebes make pit stops on rivers, large lakes and ocean coastlines that are along the way to their destined range. In winter all populations of both subspecies make use of the various topography of coastal waters or large inland seas and lakes. They typically winter in inlets, bays, or river estuaries and also venture miles away from land on the open ocean.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; polar ; terrestrial ; saltwater or marine ; freshwater

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; temporary pools; coastal

Wetlands: marsh ; swamp

Other Habitat Features: riparian

Comments: Winters along seacoasts, bays, and estuaries. In migration, found on lakes, ponds, and rivers. Nests mainly on shallow, freshwater lakes (>2 ha.) or shallow protected marsh areas and secluded bays of larger lakes, usually with at least some emergent vegetation and fish populations (Stout and Neuchterlein 1999). Nest is usually in reeds along the margins of shallow lakes; made of dead and rotting reeds and flags, water mosses, etc. raised slightly above the surface of the water, and eggs are generally wet and almost awash (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). Sites are chosen for combination of shelter from wind and waves, availability of nest materials and anchorage, easy swimming access, proximity to open water, and distance from shore-bound predators (Stout and Neuchterlein 1999).

Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Northward migration along U.S. Pacific coast starts in March; movements through western interior occur late April-May. Arrives in all except most northern breeding areas by May. Typically arrives at lakes in spring shortly before complete breakup of ice (late Apr-mid-May) (Stout and Neuchterlein 1999). Return to coastal wintering areas mostly complete by mid-November, though some linger on large inland lakes until late fall. Lake Ontario is an important spring stopover in the east.

Red-necked grebes primarily eat small fish, crustaceans, land and aquatic insects, and occasionally amphibians. In smaller lakes that do not contain an abundance of fish, fish only make a minor contribution to the overall diet. Some specific fish species that red-necked grebes eat are: sticklebacks, Pacific herrings (Clupea pallasii), pilchards (Sardina pilchardus), sculpins, topminnows, lake shiners, perch (Perca), and eels. Some specific crustacean species they eat are: mud lobsters, shrimp, prawn, crayfish, and various other amphipods. Some insect species they eat are: damselflies, dragonflies, water boatmen, whirligig beetles, water scavenger beetles, black swimmers, water striders, crawling water beetles, flies, wasps, ants, bees, stink bugs, lamellicorn beetles, ground beetles, and billbugs.

When eating aquatic prey, red-necked grebes typically forage underwater, picking up their prey off the lake bed or off of vegetation and consuming them while remaining underwater. However, if the prey is too large or difficult to handle they may bring it to the surface before consuming it. They are also known to capture low flying insects out of the air.

Animal Foods: amphibians; fish; insects; terrestrial worms; aquatic crustaceans; other marine invertebrates

Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore )

Comments: Feeds on small fish where available, but also eats aquatic and land insects, crustaceans, mollusks, aquatic worms, tadpoles, salamander eggs and some vegetable matter. Eats feathers. A visual predator, pursues fish and other swimming prey underwater and plucks items off bottom and off vegetation. Fish may be the principle food item in winter (Stout and Neuchterlein 1999).

Red-necked grebes compete with other bird species for breeding territory and with fish for food sources. They also provide a food source to their previously mentioned predators. As their primary food source, fish populations are likely kept in check by red-necked grebes.

Predators such as American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), common ravens (Corvus corax), gulls, bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), American coots (Fulica americana), raccoons (Procyon lotor), minks (Neovison and Mustela), and muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) are known to feed on red-necked grebes eggs and chicks. When small and young are not upon their parent’s back, they may be in danger of being eaten by large fish such as northern pikes (Esox lucius) and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides).

Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus) and mink often attack adult birds while they are incubating their eggs. Parasites and roundworms can also infect this species. Some breeding pairs may also display aggressive behavior towards the young of other birds, occasionally killing another pair's chicks.

In response to predators, red-necked grebes are known to jab towards them with their bills or give a hissing call. They may also cover their eggs with nesting material before leaving their nests.

Known Predators:

• American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos)
• American coots (Fulica americana)
• Bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
• Common ravens (Corvus corax)
• Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus)
• Gulls
• Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)
• Minks (Neovison and Mustela)
• Muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus)
• Northern pike (Esox lucius)
• Raccoons (Procyon lotor)

100,000 to >1,000,000 individuals

Comments: North American population likely is greater than 45,000 birds; Alaska breeding population includes about 12,000 individuals. Canadian population has been estimated at 20,000, but likely this is inaccurate because it was based on insufficient data (DeSmet 1982). More recently, minimum population estimates for the Northwest Territories exceeded 20,000 (Stout and Neuchterlein 1999).

Breeding territory size variable, reflects food supply and other ecological factors. Each breeding pair usually defends about 68-114 meters of shoreline and associated waters, where all activities take place (Palmer 1962). Occasionally, pairs may nest as little as 9 meters apart.

During breeding season, red-necked grebes are a very vocal species. The most common call is the drawn out "whinny-braying" call, which is used by the grebes to declare territories and in the mating rituals. During these rituals they also perform a variety of physical displays and “crick crick”, and “teck teck” sounding vocalizations. Red-necked grebes are often silent in the fall and winter, although the generic “crick crick” and “teck teck” sounds are sometimes produced.

Dancing duets between potential mates are a critical part of courtship behavior.

Like all birds, red-necked grebes use visual, auditory, tactile, and chemical stimuli to perceive their environment.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Other Communication Modes: duets

Over the years, populations of red-necked grebes have been banded in an effort to determine aspects of their lives including population locations, migratory routes and lifespan. However, recoveries from these studies have been insufficient to determine an estimated lifespan of this species. The little evidence that has been collected has shown that certain birds in Minnesota were still alive five years after being banded.

Range lifespan

Status: wild: 5 (high) years.

Red-necked grebes breed every year and are seasonally monogamous. They are able to breed in their first year of life, yet they usually begin when they are two or more years of age. During mate selection, this species exhibit complex courtship rituals that include a large variety of displays. These rituals are similar to other species of grebes except they tend to be more vocal and contain extensive whinny-braying, which has been described as an eerie sound that resembles a screaming squeal of a scared young pig. One of these rituals involves the mates swimming around each other, then facing each other to make contact with their breasts while rising upright and making loud ticking sounds. Mating pairs have been observed diving to the bottom of the lake and pulling out vegetation with their bills and presenting it to each other.

The breeding patterns of red-necked grebes have some variation. In some areas it has been observed that a single breeding pair will isolate themselves from other birds and act aggressively to protect their claimed territory for breeding and feeding. In contrast, in other areas it has been observed that red-necked grebes breed in colonial groups. These birds engage in open interaction with other birds. Red-necked grebes nesting in a dispersed fashion is more common than in colonies.

Red-necked grebes also have a copulation ritual that includes a variety of actions that are accompanied by the whinny-braying call that is specific to this species. During copulation the female is present on the nest with her head low and the feathers on the back of her neck are erect. The male swims around behind the female and then hops up with his wings closed and his crest up and proceeds to make a number of steps on the female’s backside before making cloacal contact. After copulation has occurred the male then slides off the side of her and reenters the water. A common postcopulatory display involves the male diving down to the bottom of the lake, pulling out some vegetation, and presenting it to his mate.

Mating System: monogamous

Most breeding pairs form on wintering grounds prior to the spring migration. Because of this, most of the birds arrive at the nesting sites for breeding season already paired. If this is not the case, the birds are paired soon after.

Red-necked grebes have a breeding season that spans from May to September. Nest building typically occurs in May and most pairs lay their first clutch within the first two weeks. They often build their nests on vegetation that is floating on or anchored near the edge of bodies of water. Vegetation that forms thick mats or provides substantial cover and anchorage is preferred. Males initiate the nest-site selection process, but both sexes participate in nest building. The nest base is built out of partially decayed vegetation that is gathered from above and below the surface of the water. The rim of the nest is built out of primarily sticks and bulrushes.

Generally, a breeding pair of red-necked grebes only produces one brood per season. If the first clutch of eggs and or the nest becomes destroyed, the pair will often attempt a subsequent set. This may occur up to 5 times in one breeding season. Although rare, a pair may lay a second set even when the first set was a success. Each clutch usually consists of 4 to 5 eggs, but anywhere from 1 to 9 has been observed. The eggs are usually laid at 1 to 2 day intervals. Eggs are light blue when they are laid, but they often fade to white within one day of being laid. Over time, the wet nest material may stain them to a dark tan color. Hatching occurs 22 to 35 days after the eggs are laid. Chicks will fledge and reach independence between 9 and 10 weeks after hatching.

The behavior of red-necked grebe mating pairs differs depending on whether or not they are a part of a solitary pair or a colonial pair during the nesting season. Solitary pairs tend to leave their nest vacant and unguarded more often then colonial pairs. In the period prior to nesting, both female and male colonial birds are more aggressive towards other birds than are solitary birds. However, after the eggs have been laid and the nest has been fully established, the females of both colonial and solitary pairs lose much of their aggressive behavior. In both groups, the females spend more time near the nest during the egg-laying period than males. However, throughout the duration of the incubation period the colonial males spend much more time near the nest and their female than the solitary males do. It is believed that colonial nests are more likely to be exposed to predators because they stand out. Therefore, the nesting behavior of red-necked grebes depends on their social situation considerably. Regardless of this, they have been observed to successfully breed in both solitary and colonial aggregations.

Breeding interval: Red-necked grebes breed once yearly.

Breeding season: Breeding season for red-necked grebes is from May to September.

Range eggs per season: 1 to 9.

Average eggs per season: 4-5.

Range time to hatching: 22 to 35 days.

Range fledging age: 9 to 10 weeks.

Range time to independence: 9 to 10 weeks.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1-2 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1-2 years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization

Both parents participate in incubating the eggs. The young red-necked grebes leave the nest via the parents' backs soon after the last egg hatches, although in some cases the parents will leave the nest before every egg has hatched. The chicks continue to ride on the parents back until they are ten to seventeen days old, the age at which they begin swimming themselves.

The parents feed the young for six to seven weeks. The primary food source of the hatchlings is insect larvae and other small prey items. The parents also feed feathers to the young birds. The young eat directly from the parents' bill. The young are typically completely independent from their parents at the age of nine to ten weeks and usually begin flying at about this time.

Parental Investment: precocial ; male parental care ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)

Egg-laying peaks in June in many areas. Male and female in turn incubate usually 3-5 eggs for 22-27 days. Young are tended by both parents, independent probably at 8-10 weeks. Usually 1 brood/year. Usually nests solitarily, sometimes in loose colony.

Red-necked grebes are in the category of “least concern” on the ICUN Red List. Even though the population tends appear to be slightly decreasing, there has not been a significant amount of change to consider it a vulnerable species. An increase in unnatural predators and human recreational activities are hypothesized to be causing a decline among red-necked grebe populations throughout North America although no obvious trends have been observed that indicate a major declination of this species.

Human pollution is also having an effect on red-necked grebe populations. In a study done in Turtle Mountain Provincial Park in Manitoba it was found that organochlorides, the remains of certain pesticides, are affecting the reproductive success of red-necked grebes. These chemicals primarily affect the integrity of the eggs.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Accidental visitor.

Least Concern.

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N5N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N5N: Secure - Nonbreeding

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N5N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N5N: Secure - Nonbreeding

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Global Short Term Trend: Relatively stable (=10% change)

Comments: Currently, the trend is probably stable.

Comments: Reduced productivity and population declines in portions of North America have been attributed to organochlorine residues, recent increases in unnatural predators (raccoon), and human recreational activities (DeSmet 1987). Commercial gill-nets are a potential source of mortality. Habitat degradation has occurred in the breeding range as a result of development near and drainage of wetlands and potholes (Stout and Neuchterlein 1999). Red-necked grebes are vulnerable during winter to marine oil spills (Stout and Neuchterlein 1999).

Global climate may effect lake dynamics and phenology, particularly in northern breeding populations. Breeding pairs need 8-11 days between arrival and onset of clutch initiation. A late spring could potentially shift the onset date of clutch initiation well into summer, jeopardizing chick survival and fledgling success (Bucher 1997).

Biological Research Needs: Basic information on winter ecology is lacking. Extent of by-catch in commercial fisheries is unknown and needs study.

Global Protection: Very many (>40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed

Comments: Many occurrences are in national parks and other protected or remote areas.

Red-necked grebes have no known negative impacts on humans.

Red-necked grebes have no significant economic importance for humans.

Comments: Populations vary in bill and body size; European and West Asian birds substantially smaller than North American and East Asian birds. European and West Asian grebes also show darker back, cheeks, and neck, and less yellow in bill than East Asian and North American birds. Two subspecies recognized: P. g. grisegena for European and West Asian populations and P. g. holboellii, for East Asian and North American populations (Stout and Neuchterlein 1999).