The breeding range of the Eastern Phoebe extends from northern Canada down into the southeastern U.S. It winters primarily in the southeastern U.S., with especially heavy concentrations in Texas and Florida. The winter range can also reach well into Mexico. It has only been recorded twice outside of North America, both times in 1987 in Great Britain (Weeks, 1994).

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Breeding

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) BREEDING: northeastern British Columbia and western and southern Mackenzie southeast to Great Lakes region, east to Nova Scotia, south to southern Alberta, southwestern South Dakota, central Texas, Arkansas, central Alabama, and South Carolina. NON-BREEDING: Chihuahua, central Texas, Gulf states, and Virginia south to southern Mexico.

The Eastern Phoebe is medium-sized flycatcher, dull in coloration to blend in with its surrounding woodland habitat. It ranges from 142-168 mm, and the male is generally larger than the female. The plumage of the male also tends to be darker, but neither of these characteristics is a failsafe means of determining the bird's sex. The upperparts of the adults are olive or grayish-brown, and the underparts tend to be pale buff. Juveniles have white bars on their wings. The bill is black (Terres, 1980; Weeks, 1994).

Average mass: 21.6 g.

Average basal metabolic rate: 0.3449 W.

Length: 18 cm

Weight: 20 grams

• Terrestrial

The Eastern Phoebe occurs in woodlands and in woody vegetation. They seem to prefer deciduous woodlands, and perhaps edge forest, and open habitats rather than mature or closed forests. There is some evidence that they prefer to be near water, but the availability of suitable nesting habitat limits them more often than preference (Weeks, 1994).

Terrestrial Biomes: forest

Comments: Open woodland, situations with scattered trees, farmlands, and suburbs, usually near water. Nests on cliffs, banks, or in ravines in open and riparian woodland or farmland with scattered trees; under bridges and eaves; in culverts or wells; sometimes in buildings. May renovate old nest, such as that of the barn swallow or phoebe. Formerly, natural sites were used; now nests mainly on human-built structures.

Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Breeding populations in Canada and most of U.S. migrate south for winter. Arrives in breeding areas March-April. Present all year in part of southern U.S.; migratory status in those areas?

The Eastern Phoebe is predominantly insectivorous, consuming mostly flying insects such as wasps, ants, flies and wild bees. Invertebrates such as grasshoppers, airborn spiders, hairworms from the water and even small fishes from shallow water round out their diet. It has been observed that it can survive on fruit when insects are unavailable. Flycatching is its main means of obtaining food, usually done from a perch less than 10 meters off the ground. It also occasionally chases flying insects to the ground, pounces on insects on the ground, and picks insects from trees while hovering. Its most active foraging period occurs in the morning (Terres, 1980; Weeks, 1994).

Comments: Eats mainly insects caught by flycatching (also picks insects from foliage and from ground via short flight from perch in tree or shrub), also eats some small fruits and seeds in cooler months (Bent 1942); sometimes also small frogs or fishes.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 124 months.

The Eastern Phoebe is monogamous and usually double-brooded. Pair formation occurs quickly after they arrive on the breeding grounds in spring. No recurrent courtship displays have been documented. The female always initiates copulation, usually in the mornings only, during the male's pre-dawn song. After pairs are formed, nest-building begins immediately, which helps them to establish territory. The female chooses the nest site. She alone builds it, though the male is with her continuously while she builds, most likely guarding his mate. The nests are made of mud, moss, some leaves, and lined with fine grass, stems and hair. Phoebes often reuse nests, of their own species or another species, though never without renovating them first. They also often build over old eggs or dead young. The nests are always built with cover overhead. Suitable nesting habitat for Eastern Phoebes is limited, so there is strong site attachment in this species. Often the same pair will breed at the same site for several successive years. Eastern phoebes keep the same nest and same mate for both broods. The laying of the first clutch usually begins 7-14 days after the nest is complete. The clutch can be 2-6, but usually 5 eggs are laid. The eggs are white with little gloss, and they sometimes have a few reddish-brown dots on one end. Incubation lasts about 16 days, less for the second brood which occurs in summer. Incubation is carried out solely by the female, and the male does not feed her while she sits. Most eggs hatch within a 24-hour period, and the female removes the eggshells from the nest immediately afterwards. Though the chicks are able to fly by day 15, they usually do not fledge until day 16 or 18. Both males and females feed the young. The young are capable of breeding in their first year.

The Eastern Phoebe is strongly parasitized by the Brown-headed Cowbird. Cowbird females often remove phoebe eggs in the process of leaving their own, and the egg is rarely rejected by the phoebe female. In most of these nests only the cowbird egg hatches, but if the phoebe egg does hatch, it will do so a few days later and the phoebe chick will usually starve. The fledgling success of cowbirds in parasitized phoebe nests is about 60-70%, about the same rate of success as phoebes in unparasitized nests (Weeks, 1994).

Average time to hatching: 16 days.

Average eggs per season: 5.

Clutch size 3-8 (commonly 5). Usually 2 broods per year, sometimes 3. Incubation 14-17 days, by female. Young tended by both parents (Condor 95:57-62), leave nest at 15-17 days, fed by parents for 2-3 weeks more. See Hill and Gates (1988) for information on nesting success. Common cowbird host (may cover cowbird egg with nest material).

The Eastern phoebe is very tolerant of human presence. The growing use of man-made structures as substitute nest sites has greatly facilitated their expansion across North America (Weeks).

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N5N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N5N: Secure - Nonbreeding

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Global Short Term Trend: Relatively stable (=10% change)

Comments: No clear regional trends in abundance (see Ehrlich et al. 1992).

Comments: In Maryland, predation (probably mainly by eastern chipmunk) accounted for most nesting losses (Hill and Gates 1988).

Restoration Potential: See Mitchell (1988) for specifications for the construction and placement of nest shelves.

Phoebes sometimes nest near man-made structures, and it is sometimes necessary to remove their nests due to potential health problems associated with mites in the nests and droppings beneath the nest (Weeks).

Phoebes feed on some species of insects that are harmful.