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Overview
Brief Summary
Description
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Mammal Species of the World
- Original description: Wagner, 1843. Arch. Naturgesch., 9, 2:52.
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Distribution
Range Description
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Geographic Range
Peromyscus polionotus occurs in the southeastern United States. Populations in the continental United States have been found scattered throughout parts of Mississippi, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, and south to Florida (Whitaker and Hamilton, 1998; Wilson and Ruff, 1999). This species of deer mouse also inhabits coastal islands off the southeastern sea board (Nowak 1999).
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
- Wilson, D., S. Ruff. 1999. The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- Nowak, R. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World, Sixth Edition VII. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
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National Distribution
United States
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
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Global Range: (20,000-2,500,000 square km (about 8000-1,000,000 square miles)) Southeastern U.S., northeastern Mississippi to western South Carolina, south through Alabama and Georgia and to western and most of peninsular Florida (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993).
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Physical Description
Morphology
Physical Description
Adult females are slightly larger than adult males (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Total length ranges from 110 to 150 millimeters with the average tail length ranging from 40 to 60 millimeters. Weight varies between 10 and 15 grams (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Peromyscus polionotus has several distinguishing characteristics. This species is smaller in size and has a smaller skull compared to other species in th genus Peromyscus. The white and brown colored tail, with a white underside, are two identifiable characteristics (Whitaker and Hamilton, 1998).
Distinct local color variation is found among the subspecies. For example, individuals inhabiting the beach tend to have less pigmented hair than individuals of an inland population (Wilson and Ruff 1999). This pale coloration may help beach populations blend into the sandy environment, thus avoiding predation.
Range mass: 10 to 15 g.
Range length: 110 to 150 mm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger
Average basal metabolic rate: 0.12 W.
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Size
Size in North America
Length:
Average: 135 mm
Range: 110-150 mm
Weight:
Average: 13 g
Range: 10-15 g
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Diagnostic Description
Differs from P. GOSSYPINUS, Leucopus, and P. FLORIDANUS in being paler and/or smaller (GOSSYPINUS is 160-205 mm in total length, 68-97 tail length; Leucopus is 156-205 in total length, 63-97 mm tail; FLORIDANUS is 186-221 mm in total length, 80-95 mm tail) (Hall 1981). Ochrotomys nuttalli is bright golden-cinnamon and larger (150-190 mm total length, 68-93 mm tail).
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Ecology
Habitat
Habitat and Ecology
It may breed all year. Much breeding activity on the Gulf Coast occurs from November-January. Produces two or more litters per year. Gestation averages 23-24 days (non lactating) or 28-29 days (lactating). Litter size averages 3-4. Young are weaned in about 18 days. Minimum age at conception is five weeks. Apparently monogamous mating system (Kirkland and Layne 1989).
Feeds mainly on grass/weed seeds and insects; also eats blackberries and wild pea. Beach populations eat fruits and seeds of dune plants, especially sea oats and sea rocket; feeds on invertebrates when seeds are scarce (Matthews and Moseley 1990). It is primarily nocturnal.
Systems
- Terrestrial
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Habitat
Oldfield mice inhabit diverse environments. These mice typically occupy early successional habitats such as abandoned fields, beach dunes, and scrub habitats (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). They dig underground nest cavities which lie 0.3 to 0.9 meters below the surface. There is a leading and an escaping tunnel. A mound of soil or sand marks the entrance of the leading tunnel.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; scrub forest
Other Habitat Features: suburban ; agricultural
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Comments: Favors dry sandy fields and beaches with grass/shrub cover; at Merritt Island, Florida, usually among clumps of palmetto and sea grape with expanses of open sand or among dense palmetto-sea grape-wax myrtle. Occupies underground burrows when inactive; entrances in clumps of grass or beneath sheltering vegetation (Matthews and Moseley 1990). Young are born in underground burrows.
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Migration
Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.
Subspecies ammobates: Based on recaptures in traps, mean home range size was 3,586 square meters; mean dispersal distance of subadults was 160 m (= 2.4 home range diameters), but a siginificant number of mice dispersed more than 5 home range diameters (Swilling and Wooten 2002). Trapping data likely underestimate dispersal distance.
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Trophic Strategy
Food Habits
Oldfield mice are granivorous, feeding on the seeds of grasses and herbs. They store food in underground caches (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). They will also consume arthropods, insect parts have been found in nests (Gentry and Smith, 1968).
Animal Foods: insects
Plant Foods: seeds, grains, and nuts
Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food
Primary Diet: herbivore (Granivore )
- Gentry, J., M. Smith. 1968. Food habits and burrow associates of *Peromyscus polionotus*. Journal of Mammalogy, 49: 562-565.
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Comments: Feeds mainly on grass/weed seeds and insects; also eats blackberries and wild pea. Beach populations eat fruits and seeds of dune plants, especially sea oats and sea rocket; feeds on invertebrates when seeds are scarce (Matthews and Moseley 1990).
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Associations
Ecosystem Roles
Oldfield mice are an important prey base for small predators in the areas in which they live. They may also play an important role in influencing seed survivorship of the plant communities in which they occur. The following parasites have been found in individuals living in Florida: nematodes- six species, trematodes- one species, acanthocephalans- one species, and fleas- two species (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998).
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
- fleas (Siphonaptera)
- nematodes (Nematoda)
- trematodes or flukes (Trematoda)
- acanthocephalans (Acanthocephala)
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Predation
Oldfield mice are preyed upon by many small predators, such as raptors, owls, snakes, weasels, foxes, and cats (Whitaker and Hamilton, 1998). They escape predation by seeking refuge in their burrows and by being active primarily at night.
Known Predators:
- raptors (Falconiformes)
- owls (Strigiformes)
- snakes (Serpentes)
- weasels (Mustela)
- gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus)
- domestic cats (Felis silvestris)
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
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Known predators
Strigiformes
Serpentes
Mustela
Felis silvestris
Vulpes vulpes
Vulpes velox
Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Falconiformes
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
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General Ecology
Population densities of up to 6 per acre have been recorded (Burt and Grossenheider 1976). Home range size is up to 3 acres.
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Life History and Behavior
Behavior
Communication and Perception
Like other Peromyscus species, oldfield mice have keen vision, hearing, and tactile sensation. They use chemical cues extensively in communication.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic
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Cyclicity
Life Expectancy
Lifespan/Longevity
Oldfield mice probably live for no longer than about 18 months in the wild.
Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 18 (high) months.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 5.5 years.
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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
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Reproduction
Reproduction
These mice are monogamous, with the breeding pair remaining together for a period of time.
Mating System: monogamous
Breeding of Peromyscus polionotus occurs throughout the year. There is a decline in breeding activity during the summer (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Gestation is 24 days in length but may be a few days longer if a previous litter is still nursing (Whitaker and Hamilton, 1998). Litter size ranges between three and four individuals. The average age for the first estrus cycle in a female is 29.6 days (Nowak, 1999).
Breeding interval: Females can have multiple litters in a year.
Breeding season: Breeding occurs year-round.
Range number of offspring: 3 to 4.
Average gestation period: 24 days.
Range weaning age: 20 to 25 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 30 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 30 days.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous
Average birth mass: 1.68 g.
Average gestation period: 24 days.
Average number of offspring: 3.8.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 28 days.
At birth, the young are helpless, weighing only 6 to 7 grams. They are pink in color and hairless with the exception of vibrissae around the nose. The eyes do not open until the thirteenth or fourteenth day of life. The litter is weaned around 20-25 days after birth. Above-ground activity occurs after weaning.
Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female)
- Wilson, D., S. Ruff. 1999. The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- Nowak, R. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World, Sixth Edition VII. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
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May breed all year. Much breeding activity on Gulf Coast occurs November-January. Produces 2 or more litters per year. Gestation averages 23-24 days (nonlactating) or 28-29 days (lactating). Litter size averages 3-4 (USFWS 1988). Young are weaned in about 18 days. Minimum age at conception is 5 weeks. Apparently monogamous mating system (Kirkland and Layne 1989).
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Conservation
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Version
Year Assessed
Assessor/s
Reviewer/s
Justification
History
- 1996Lower Risk/least concern
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Conservation Status
Several subspecies of P. polionotus are on conservation lists. The status varies by subspecies. For example, on the IUCN list, some subspecies are listed as extinct while others are listed as endangered, critically endangered, or lower risk. Beach development and water recreation are just two causes for this mouse being in danger of extinction (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). A third probable danger to P. polionotus is climatic. For example, the coast along the Gulf of Mexico has been subject to hurricanes and other violent weather in the past. Swilling et. al (1998) have recorded populations of Peromyscus polionotus to be severely reduced several months after Hurricane Opal hit the Alabama coast.
Subspecies of oldfield mice considered endangered are: Peromyscus polionotus allophrys, Peromyscus polionotus ammobates, Peromyscus polionotus peninsularis, Peromyscus polionotus phasma, and Peromyscus polionotus trissyllepsis, all of which occur in Florida and Alabama. Peromyscus polionotus niveiventris are considered threatened, they occur in Florida. Additional subspecies recognized by the IUCN are Peromyscus polionotus leucocephalus, near threatened in Florida, and Peromyscus polionotus decoloratus, extinct from Florida.
US Federal List: endangered; threatened
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
- Swilling Jr, W., M. Wooten, N. Holler. 1998. Population dynamics of Alabama beach mice (*Peromyscus polionotus ammobates*) following Hurrican Opal. American Midland Naturalist, 140, no 2: 287-298.
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National NatureServe Conservation Status
United States
Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure
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NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure
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Status
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Trends
Population
Population Trend
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Threats
Threats
Of the 16 subspecies, eight coastal forms are of conservation concern. P. p. decoloratus is Extinct; P. p. trissyllepsis (Perdido Key beach mouse) is Critically Endangered; P. p. allophrys (Choctawatchee beach mouse), P. p. ammobates (Alabama beach mouse), P. p. peninsularis (St. Andrews beach mouse), and P. p. phasma (Anastasia Island beach mouse) are considered Endangered; and P. p. leucocephalus (Santa Rosa beach mouse) and P. p. niveiventris (Southeastern beach mouse) Near Threatened. All eight subspecies have restricted distributions and are threatened by habitat loss and associated pressures due to tourism and development.
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Management
Conservation Actions
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Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Benefits
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
It has been reported that Peromyscus polionotus can be a pest when it digs up the seeds of local gardeners for consumption (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998).
Negative Impacts: household pest
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Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Oldfield mice are excellent models for genetic research and have been used extensively to study variation in pigment controlling genes.
Positive Impacts: research and education
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Wikipedia
Oldfield mouse
- This article is about the North American species Peromyscus polionotus, known as the "oldfield mouse". See Thomasomys for the South American genus also known as "oldfield mice".
The oldfield mouse or beach mouse (Peromyscus polionotus) is a nocturnal species of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It is found in the southeastern United States on sandy beaches, in corn and cotton fields, and in hedge rows and open timber tracts. Coloration varies with geographic location: inland populations are generally fawn-colored while coastal populations are lighter or white. The mouse eats seeds, fruits, and occasionally insects, and lives and raises its three to four young in a simple burrow. Weaning occurs at 20–25 days, and females may mate at 30 days of age. Predators are those that prey on small mammals. One individual lived in captivity for about five years. The mouse is of least concern to conservationists because it is abundant and widespread, and no major threats exist for the species as a whole, but several subspecies with small distributions are endangered or even extinct.
Contents |
Distribution and habitat
Peromyscus polionotus occurs only in the southeastern United States from central Alabama, south-central Tennessee, western South Carolina, northeastern Mississippi, and Georgia to the Gulf Coast and through western and most of peninsular Florida.[1]
The mice prefer sandy fields and beaches but will choose corn and cotton fields and occasionally hedgerows and open timber tracts. Land and beachfront development threaten habitat.[2] Populations of up to six per acre have been recorded.[1]
Description
The mouse has fawn-colored upperparts and gray to white underparts through most of its range but on white sandy beaches the mouse is light or even white. Inland populations are darker and smaller with shorter tails that are dusky above and white below. General body and tail color may vary slightly depending upon geographical location.[2]
| Measurements (20 adults from Alabama, Florida, and Georgia)[2] | |
|---|---|
| Length | 127 mm (5.0 in) 122–138 mm (4.8–5.4 in) |
| Tail | 47 mm (1.9 in) 40–51 mm (1.6–2.0 in) |
| Hind foot | 16.5 mm (0.65 in) 15–18 mm (0.59–0.71 in) |
| Weight | 8–19 g (0.28–0.67 oz) |
| Diploid number | 48 |
| Tooth formula |  = 16 |
Behavior
The mouse is primarily nocturnal.[1]
Diet
P. polionotus are omnivores and the principal diet is seasonal seeds of wild grasses and forbs but blackberries, acorns, and wild pea may be consumed. Insects consumed include beetles, leaf hoppers, true bugs, and ants. Vertebrates are consumed. Beach populations will consume the fruits and wind-deposited seeds of sea oats and sea rocket and will feed on invertebrates when seeds are scarce.[1][2][3]
Shelter
The beach mouse burrows and leaves mounds of earth around the burrow entrance. The burrow slopes down from the entrance for a space then levels off with a nest at its end. A branch of the burrow may extend above the nest to just a few centimeters below the surface as an emergency exit. Should the burrow be disturbed, the mouse will "explode" through the sand via the exit and dash off. The mice will close any burrows in heavy rains should flood threaten. Spiders, snakes, and other species may move into a burrow.[4]
Reproduction
The mice are monogamous. Gestation is 23–24 days, possibly 25–31 if the mother is still lactating from a previous litter. Mean litter size is 3–4. When birth is imminent, the female assumes a crouching position and may rise to a more erect position as each juvenile is born. She may aid the birth by gently pulling on the young with her forefeet, as one mouse has been observed doing. The placenta may be removed in the same manner. She then eats it. The umbilical cord is broken by pulling or chewing or when the placenta is consumed. She may stretch and groom between deliveries. Births usually occur in the daytime and usually over several minutes or even an hour.[4]
The pinkish newborn may be washed by the mother following the last delivery and weigh between 1.1–2.2 g (0.039–0.078 oz). The pinnae elevate in 3–5 days, the lower incisors erupt in 6–7 days, and the eyes open in 10–16 days. Weaning is gradual and occurs over 20–25 days. First estrus may occur as early as one month and first litter at 53 days of age. The juvenile pelage is gray. At one week, the young weigh 4 g (0.14 oz), at three weeks 6–7 g (0.21–0.25 oz), and at five weeks 8–10 g (0.28–0.35 oz). The young in one study dispersed 430 m (1,410 ft) before establishing their homes.[5]
| Reproduction | |
|---|---|
| Sexual maturity (female) | 30 days |
| Gestation | 23–24 days |
| Litter size | 3–4 (viviparous) |
| Weight at birth | 1.1–2.2 g (0.039–0.078 oz) |
| Weaning | 20–25 days |
| Adult weight | 8–10 g (0.28–0.35 oz) |
Survival
Presumed predators are those that prey upon small mammals including house cats. Parasites found in mice from Florida were six species of nematodes, one each of trematodes and acanthocephalans, and two of fleas.[5] One mouse survived in captivity 5.5 years.[6]
Conservation
The IUCN lists the species as of least concern because it is widespread and abundant, and there are no major threats to the species at this time (2010). It is found in many protected areas.
Of the 16 subspecies, eight coastal forms are of conservation concern. All eight subspecies have restricted distributions and are threatened by habitat loss and associated pressures due to tourism and land development.
- P. p. decoloratus is Extinct;
- P. p. trissyllepsis (Perdido Key beach mouse) is Critically Endangered;
- P. p. allophrys (Choctawatchee beach mouse), P. p. ammobates (Alabama beach mouse), P. p. peninsularis (St. Andrews beach mouse), and P. p. phasma (Anastasia Island beach mouse) are considered Endangered;
- P. p. leucocephalus (Santa Rosa beach mouse), and P. p. niveiventris (Southeastern beach mouse) are Near Threatened.[1]
References
- Footnotes
- Works cited
- Linzey, A. V. and G. Hammerson, G. (2008), Peromyscus polionotus, IUCN, http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/42654/0, retrieved February 10, 2010
- Peromyscus polionotus, Human Ageing Genomic Resources, http://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Peromyscus_polionotus, retrieved February 10, 2010
- Whitaker, John O., Jr.; Hamilton, William J., Jr. (1998), Mammals of the Eastern United States (3 ed.), Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, ISBN 0-8014-3475-0, http://books.google.com/books?id=5fVymWAez-YC&printsec=frontcover
- Wooten, Michael C., Peromyscus polionotus: Oldfield mouse, Auburn University, SC, http://wotan.cse.sc.edu/perobase/systematics/p_polion.htm, retrieved February 11, 2010
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Names and Taxonomy
Taxonomy
Comments: Genetic heterozygosity levels among populations inhabiting the Gulf Coast barrier beaches and islands are only about 1/3 to 1/2 those recorded for mice on adjacent mainland (Selander et al. 1971). The systematics of P. polionotus is in need of critical review (Carleton 1989).
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