Eurycea lucifuga can be red, dull yellow, or orange with a belly that ranges from yellow to white (Bishop 1994). The back and sides of the head, trunk, and tail contain small rounded or irregular black spots (Bishop 1994). These spots can sometimes form a dorso-lateral linear pattern (Bishop 1994). This salamander is slender and has a blunt snout (Petranka 1998). The largest part of the head is located immediately behind the eyes (Bishop 1994).

Adult Eurycea lucifuga are 100-200mm in total length (Petranka 1998). A survey by Hutchison (1958) found that adult males are mature at 46mm SVL and females are mature at 48mm SVL. Males can be identified externally by a swollen snout area by the nasolabial grooves (Bishop 1994). Additionally, males posses more developed cirri than females (Bishop 1994). Juveniles are less pigmented then adults, and are yellowish in color (Conant and Collins 1998). Juveniles also have a shorter tail (Conant and Collins 1998).

Found throughout most of Kentucky, reaching up into the southwest tip of Ohio and into much of southern Indiana. From there, the range extends from the southern tip of Illinois, southern Missouri, northern Arkansas, the northeast tip of Oklahoma and the southeast tip of Kansas. The range also covers central and eastern Tennessee, the northern portions of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and extends up the border between the Virginias.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

endemic to a single nation

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (200,000-2,500,000 square km (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)) Eastern Oklahoma to northern Virginia, north to central Indiana, south to central Alabama (Conant and Collins 1991).

Eurycea lucifuga has been found from Tippecanoe County, Indiana in the north to Polk County, Georgia in the south and from Mayes County, Oklahoma in the west to Rockbridge County, Virginia in the east (Hutchison 1958). E. lucifuga is found in the twilight zone of cave habitats and is dependant on limestone for suitable cave habitats (Dundee 1947). Eurycea lucifuga is classified as a troglophile which means it is dependant on the cave environment to complete its life cycles but it has the ability to leave the cave temporarily (Ringia and Lips 2007).

Eurycea lucifuga is a slender, dull yellow, orange or bright reddish-orange salamander with a white or yellow belly. Its back, sides of the head, trunk and tail are covered with many small, irregular or rounded spots that rarely form dorsolateral rows. It has a very blunt snout with the largest part of their head right behind the eyes. E. lucifuga has a relatively long tail and long limbs with 5-4 toes, the hind ones being webbed at the base (Bishop, 1994). There are between 14 and 15 costal grooves (Conant and Collins, 1998).

Adults in this species are from 10-20 cm long (Petranka 1998). The sexes are, on average, the same size but distinguishable by details of the head. The males are noticeably swollen in the snout area by the nasolabial grooves and the cirri (small tabs of flesh that carry are more developed than in the females (Bishop, 1994). The juveniles will usually be a lighter ground color (yellow) and have a shorter tail (Conant and Collins, 1998). As the individual grows, the color will deepen and the tail will lengthen.

Length: 18 cm

• Terrestrial
• Freshwater

Most frequently found in the twilight zone of caves, but also occasionally under logs and rocks in the surrounding moist forests more than a kilometer away from the nearest cave (Conant and Collins, et. al, 1995, Petranka 1998). The twilight area of a cave is the area just inside the entrance where there is some light, but not enough for plants to grow (Taylor 1999).

Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; mountains

Comments: Caves (usually limestone); also rocky streams and springs, and wooded areas and fields, usually near caves or limestone outcrops. Hides under objects during day in noncave areas, except in wet weather when it may be in the open. Eggs are laid in cave streams or pools, springs, or in rocky streams outside of caves. Larvae remain in cave pools until winter or early spring when pools begin to overflow; larvae washed into larger streams, remain there until metamorphosis

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

E. lucifuga eat many kinds of invertebrates, including many kinds of insects, mites, ticks, isopods, earthworms, and other soft-bodied creatures. At least one study has found juvenile slimy salamanders (Plethodon glutinosus) in the stomachs of specimens of this species (Petranka, 1998). It has a baletoid tongue which it uses in combination with a short lunge to capture its prey, being able to fully extend the tongue in approximately 5.5 milliseconds (Deban 1996). They have long, angled vomerine teeth accompanied by parasphenoid teeth which form club-shaped patches (Bishop, 1994).

Comments: Adults eat a variety of small terrestrial invertebrates.

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 - 300

Comments: Many occurrences.

Comments: Usually active nocturnally outside of caves, may be active at any hour in caves.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 9.1 years.

Breeding occurs from September to February (possibly later in some areas), and can occur twice in the same year. Females have been found with 5-120 eggs. Eggs have only rarely been found, they are laid singly, apparently in deep recesses in cave streams and springs (Collins, et. al, 1995, Petranka 1998). Small larvae, approximately 17.5 mm, emerge that are uniform in color with three longitudinal rows of spots and a broad tail fin (Bishop, 1994).

Lays clutch of 50-90 eggs (singly), fall-spring. Aquatic larvae metamorphose in 1-2 years.

This species is endangered in Kansas, but currently has no federal status. Activities by humans in and around the caves in addition to groundwater pollution have been thought tobe the potential sources of the decline in populations (Collins, et. al, 1995).

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Intrinsic Vulnerability: Moderately vulnerable

Environmental Specificity: Narrow. Specialist or community with key requirements common.

Global Short Term Trend: Relatively stable (=10% change)

Comments: No data but likely stable.

Global Long Term Trend: Increase of 10-25% to decline of 30%

Comments: No data, but likely stable for most criteria.

Oviposition in Eurycea lucifuga takes place from June to November during periods of decreased stream flow (Ringia and Lips 2007). The long breeding season of this species allows for multiple clutches in a season (Ringia and Lips 2007). Larvae leave their natal pools between December and May and the movement is linked to an increase in water flow, oviposition is timed to avoid exposure to spring floods (Ringia and Lips 2007). An average clutch size was described by Hutchison (1958) by looking at ovarian eggs in 17 females. He determined the average to be 68.3 eggs per clutch, with a median of 67, and a range from 49 to 87 (Hutchison 1958). Oviposition occurs deep in cave streams or in cave pools (Ringia and Lips 2007). Larvae emerge at around 17.5mm total length (Bishop, 1994).

An estimation of abundance was given by Hutchison (1958) in a mark-recapture study of four caves found in Giles County, Virginia. In Lucas Cave; Hutchison (1958) estimated 62 individuals; in Williams Cave, Virginia, 60 individuals; in Link Cave, Virginia, 63 individuals, and in Tawney’s Cave, Virginia, 36 individuals.

Eurycea lucifuga has been known to climb rocks (Conant and Collins, 1998).

This species is not currently threatened and its populations are remaining stable. However, because of its dependence on Limestone caves and aquifers, any tampering or destruction of these environments will harm the populations inhabiting them.

This species could also be threatened by global climate change because a direct link has been found between larval mortality rate, and increases in natal pool temperature (Ringia and Lips 2007). A recent study found that increased natal pool temperatures can lead to fatal fungal infections in larvae (Ringia and Lips 2007).

Eurycea lucifuga currently does not have any destructive relationships with humans. Furthermore, it is a well-studied species, which will help conserve this animal if any threats arise in the near future.