The Spring Salamander has an extensive range. It is found in and around the Applachian Mountains in eastern North America and north into the Adirondacks and just into Canada. Although it has the potential to be found anywhere within this range, its specific habitat requirements mean that actual distribution is spotty (Conant&Collins 1998).

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (200,000-2,500,000 square km (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)) Southern Quebec and southern Maine to northern Georgia, Alabama, and northeastern Mississippi (Conant and Colins 1991).

The Spring Salamander is one of the largest species in the family of

lungless salamanders (Tenn. Aquarium, 1998), and can grow up to 21 cm in

length (Watkins-Colwell, 2001). The males often grow to be about 12-19 cm in length, and the females grow to be slightly smaller (Tenn. Aquarium, 1998).

As larvae, the Spring Salamander is 19 mm long when it hatches, and has the potential to grow to be 10.2 cm long, before it transforms into an adult. Larvae have a broad, elongated snout that is slightly upturned at the tip (Leary, 2001). The Spring Salamander has a stout body and a broad nose that ends abruptly. Its back and tail are light brownish-orange or salmon-red with small dark spots. The belly is a faded peach color, and the throat may be flecked with black. A light line, bordered below by a dark line, begins at the eye and extends to the nostril. As an adult, the Spring Salamander's tail has a prominent, knife-like keel on the top that enables it to swim in swift-moving water (Conn. Dep., 2000). Adults also have toxic, cutaneous secretions and red coloration that mimics more toxic species, for protection from terrestrial predators (Environment Canada, 2000).

Length: 22 cm

• Terrestrial
• Freshwater

Spring Salamanders are semi-aquatic, spending a majority of their time in springs, wet caves, and cool, clear mountain brooks (Tenn. Aquarium, 1998). Spring Salamanders can also be found under stones and logs near stream edges (Wild Portraits, 2000). Because they are lungless, and must obtain oxygen through their skin, Spring Salamanders are limited to areas where there is adequate oxygen and moisture. The Northern Spring Salamander is not confined to the water, however, and has been noted to, in a nighttime downpour, leave their aquatic habitats and venture onto land in search of food (Tenn. Aquarium, 1998). During the winter, Spring Salamanders spend their time in wet soil close to a source of water where they remain somewhat active in burrows. The Spring Salamander can also be found among leaf litter in forests surrounding a brook or stream (Conn. Dept., 2000).

Terrestrial Biomes: forest

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams

Comments: Small, clear upland streams; clear springs; caves; shaded seepages; occasionally in swamps and lake margins. Sometimes also in forested wet areas away from streams, especially during rainy periods. Often under rocks, logs, leaves, or moss in or near water. Eggs usually are attached to undersides of rocks in running water.

Adams and Beachy (2001) documented morphological variation among populations in the southern Appalachian Mountains and found patterns "consistent with the hypothesis that large rivers restrict sizable gene flow."

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

The Spring Salamander consumes a wide variety of food consisting of insects, crustaceans, centipedes, millipedes, earthworms, snails, spiders, and occasionally small frogs and salamanders, including those of their own species (Conn. Dept., 2000).

Comments: Eats a wide variety of small invertebrates; large ones also eat small amphibians.

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

Comments: Many occurrences.

10,000 - 100,000 individuals

Comments: Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000.

In experimental stream communities, Resetarits (1991) found that brook trout negatively affected both growth and survival of the salamander Gyrinophilus porphyriticus; the presence of Gyrinophilus had no affect on relative condition or fecundity of Salvelinus. Salvelinus and Gyrinophilus affected the growth of the two-lined salamander Eurycea and the crayfish Cambarus bartonii. Salvelinus caused Cambarus and Eurycea to alter their activity levels and habitat; Eurycea and Cambarus were able to avoid predation by Salvelinus and Gyrinophilus but at a significant cost to growth.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 18.5 years.

Unlike many of the other larger salamander species that breed in the spring, the Spring Salamander breeds from mid-October through the winter months. During this time of courtship, the male and female push each other and roll around in the water. The male deposits sperm which is then picked up and stored by the female until the eggs are laid in the spring of the following year (Conn. Dept., 2000). The female salamander lays 11-100 eggs and attaches each one individually under stones in cool, clear water. The 19 mm long aquatic larvae hatch during the late summer and are often found in the water carefully hidden among the rocks. The larvae can grow to be 10.2 cm long before it transforms into an adult, which may take two to three years (Behler, 1996).

Eggs laid in spring, summer, or fall, depending on local conditions. Clutch size often 20-60, up to 100+. Female stays with eggs until hatching (about 3 months). Aquatic larvae metamorphose after about 2-4 years; sexually mature probably within 1 year after metamorphosis.

The Spring Salamander is listed as a threatened species in the state of Connecticut (Conn. Dept., 2000). Threats to the Spring Salamander include pollution in the streams due to deforestation, agriculture, and the introduction of predatory fish such as trout (Environment Canada, 2000). Habitat modification and sedimentation in streams, because of stream bed and shore band alteration during road construction and canalization, is also a problem. In order to help save the habitat of the Spring Salamander, people can become involved in projects to restore shade trees and shrubs along stream banks that will help maintain water temperatures that are suitable for the salamander (Conn. Dept., 2000).

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N3 - Vulnerable

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Intrinsic Vulnerability: Highly to moderately vulnerable.

Environmental Specificity: Very narrow. Specialist or community with key requirements scarce.

Global Short Term Trend: Relatively stable (=10% change)

Comments: No data but likely stable in extent of occurrence and probably stable to slightly declining in population size, area of occupancy, and number/condition of occurrences.

Global Long Term Trend: Increase of 10-25% to decline of 30%

Comments: Likely stable in extent of occurrence, probably less than 25% decline in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences, but data are scant.

Comments: Deforestation and its impacts on stream conditions are the primary potential threats, but in general this species is secure throughout most of its range.

None.

None.

Comments: Some authors include G. subterraneus in this species (Blaney and Blaney 1978).