Acropora cervicornis occurs only in the western Atlantic (one of three Acropora species found in the Atlantic). However, some of the ~120 Acropora species in the Pacific may also sometimes be referred to as "staghorn coral", leaving the incorrect impression that A. cervicornis occurs in the Pacific as well (S.D. Cairns, in litt. December 2009).

Species of the genus -Acropora- are favorable to warm water marine environments. In particular, -Acropora cervicornis- is one of the primary reef building corals in the Caribbean (Birkeland 1997). These species are also located in the Great Barrier Reef of Australia (McGregor 1974).

Biogeographic Regions: atlantic ocean (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) Widespread distribution in the tropical western Atlantic, including the Gulf of Mexico, southern Florida, Bahamas, Jamaica, Cuba, Belize, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles, Panama and Curacao. Smith (1971): Florida, Bahamas. Colin (1978): throughout the Caribbean. Jones (1977), Davis (1977), Dustan (1977, 1985), Dustan and Halas (1987), Glynn et al. (1989), Jaap (1984), Jaap et al. (1989), Wheaton and Jaap (1988), Burns (1985), White and Porter (1985), Goldberg (1973a), Marszalek (1981): southern Florida. Farrell et al. (1983), Tunnell (1988): southwestern Gulf of Mexico. Lang et al. (1988): Bahamas. K¿hlmann (1974), Zlatarski and Estalella (1982): Cuba. Woodley et al. (1981), Tunnicliffe (1983), Hughes (1985), Hughes and Jackson (1985), Knowlton et al. (1981), Goreau and Wells (1967), Goreau (1959), Liddell and Ohlhorst (1981, 1987): Jamaica. Roberts (1971): Cayman Islands. Jordan et al. (1981), Fenner (1988): Yucatan, Mexico. Almy and Carrion-Torres (1963), Pressick (1970), Loya (1976), Rogers (1979): Puerto Rico. Gladfelter et al. (1978), Rogers et al. (1983), Edmunds et al. (1990): USVI. Dunne and Brown (1979): Anegada. Scatterday (1974), Bak (1981): Cura¿ao and Bonaire. Highsmith (1982): Panama.

These corals commonly have tentacles in multiples of three, which is characteristic of all corals belonging to the subclass Zoantharia, also known as Hexacorallia (Encarta 1997). At night, the tiny fingerlike tentacles of the corals emerge. They pump themselves up with water and pop out like tiny stars all over a coral reef (Sargent 1991). The staghorn coral, -A. cervicornis-, grows into "antler-like branches" so the polyps are raised above the sand (McGregor 1974). Staghorn corals have nematocysts, which are stinging cells that are located on their tentacles. These stinging cells are necessary for a coral to obtain food (Sisson 1973).

Tentacles occur in multiples of 6, as is true for all stony corals (S.D. Cairns, in litt. December 2009).

• Marine

Acropora cervicornis like to live in warm, marine water close to the surface. The tropical western regions of the oceans are where there is most of the coral diversity of coral reef organisms (Birkeland 1997). The polyps that form the coral need tropical waters where the temperatures are higher than 20 degrees centigrade and there is adequate light. They also require a hard surface for which the coral polyps can settle. Staghorn corals, as well as all other corals, need very oxygenated water containing adequate supplies of small planktonic animals. Corals also need clear water, because apart from reducing the light, and heavy rain of sediment would smother them (McGregor 1974)

Aquatic Biomes: coastal

Habitat Type: Marine

Comments: Occupies depth range from 0-50 m, but typically occurs between 15-30 m on fore-reef communities on bank reefs and fringing reefs (Goreau and Wells, 1967; Adey, 1977; Tunnicliffe, 1983).

Goreau and Wells (1967): 0 to 50 m (15-30 m optimum depth). Goldberg (1973a): outer reef platform (16-20 m). Gilmore and Hall (1976): patch reefs. Adey (1977): major mid-depth (10-25 m) reef builder. Cairns (1982): back reef to outer ridge. Davis (1982): octocoral-dominated hardgrounds. Tunnell (1983): occupies most extensive depth range (0-30 m) in genus. Jaap (1984): bank reefs and transitional reefs. Wheaton and Jaap (1988): spur and groove reefs, back reef.

Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Sedentary

Staghorn corals use their nematocysts which are located on their tentacles for eating and gaining food. Surprisingly some Acropora species have actually been seen capturing live fish (Sisson 1973). Staghorn corals also eat planktonic animals which float by in the water (McGregor 1974).

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

Comments: Information is needed on the number of occurrences in the tropical western Atlantic.

2500 - 10,000 individuals

Comments: Colonizes numerous classes of marine hard-bottom communities, including low-relief hard-bottom areas, patch reefs, spur and groove reefs, fringing reefs, transitional reefs and deeper intermediate reefs.

Dustan (1977), Tunnell (1983): preyed upon by Hermodice caruncullata (fire worm) and Coralliophila abbreviata. Shinn (1976): linear growth rate of 80-264 mm/yr. Gladfelter et al. (1978): linear growth rate estimated at 71 mm/yr. Peters (1984): inflicted with white band disease. Ghiold and Smith (1990), Williams and Bunkley-Williams (1990): susceptible to bleaching (loss of zooxanthellae) due to adverse environmental conditions.

As in all corals, the Staghorn Coral reproduces both sexually and asexually. The very first stage of reproduction is a sexually-caused stage of reef-building. This occurs when existing polyps expel millions of spermatoza into the water. Some of these gametes are drawn into other polyps that are nearby; the eggs that are produced there are then fertilized and larva develop and float away to produce new polyps. The larva, called planula, are extremely small and bulb-shaped. They are constantly changing shape as they swim/drift (Sisson 1973). They have a mouth at the upper end, which is the wider end with cilia like hairs all over them that are constantly beating and help support them to the surface. The planula that survive predators while floating through the water settle on a suitable hard surface in warm water and attach themselves by spreading out into a disk (Sisson 1973). Once they land here, they begin to secrete a white starlike outer skeleton which permanently cements it to a spot and develop tentacles and grow into mature polyps. Once the first skeletons are built, the founders, or the sexually produced polyps, multiply by asexual methods. Acropora grow branches, which are also known as buds, that become the daughter polyps, which then bud more daughters (McGregor 1974).

Szmant (1986): sexual mode is hermaphroditic protogynous; gametogenesis for females is from September to April and for males is from June to July. Spawning occurs in late August with external larval development. Bak and Engel (1979), Rylaarsdam (1983), Rogers et al. (1984): low reported recruitment rates.

The structure of staghorn coral is just one example of a natural branched system that protects against compression loading using scaled struts joined in a common lattice.

Branches of Caribbean stony coral protect the core colony by programmed breakage.

The coral reefs in the eastern tropical Pacific have been most severly degraded by climatic events. Especially after the El Nino of 1982-1983. Many of these reefs have continued to deteriorate since then because coral recruitment has been sparse and sea urchins continue to erode away the framework of the coral. Coral bleaching (loss of zooxanthellae and/or pigment) has been increasingly wide-spread and frequent. In a survey of more than 2,000 sites in the British Virign Islands, it was found that over 95% of Acropora were dead in 1993.

US Federal List: threatened

CITES: appendix ii

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: critically endangered

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: NNR - Unranked

Rounded Global Status Rank: G3 - Vulnerable

Reasons: Widespread distribution in the tropical western Atlantic and occurs on numerous classes of marine hard-bottom communities. Considered extremely threatened due to high sensitivity to environmental perturbations and widespread decline in the western Atlantic.

Global Short Term Trend: Decline of 10-30%

Comments: Declining populations in south Florida and the Caribbean due to thermal events, anchor damage, and diseases of unknown etiology (Dustan, 1977; Tunnicliffe, 1983; Peters, 1984).

Degree of Threat: A : Very threatened throughout its range communities directly exploited or their composition and structure irreversibly threatened by man-made forces, including exotic species

Comments: Considered extremely threatened due to high sensitivity to sedimentation, eutrophication, disease, bleaching, salinity, and mechanical damage (Davis, 1977; Curtis, 1985).
Davis (1977): extensive anchor damage in Dry Tortugas, Florida. Curtis (1985): damage from vessel groundings in southern Florida

Biological Research Needs: Data needed on recruitment patterns and susceptibility to eutrophication and sedimentation.

Global Protection: Few to several (1-12) occurrences appropriately protected and managed

Comments: Protected populations in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne National Park and Dry Tortugas, Florida.

Needs: Mooring buoys should be installed proximate to populations in marine protected areas.

There really are not any negative effects that corals cause to humans. Sometimes they can damage or wreck a boat, but usually they are pretty harmless to humans

Acropora cervicornis house many creatures, some of which may be useful to the medical research field. Some of the species that live in the corals have already yeilded compounds active against inflammations, asthma, leukemia, tumors, heart disease, fungal and bacteria infections, and even viruses including HIV (Chadwick 1999). Staghorn corals are also of vital importance to the stabilization of coastlines, as fish habitats, and for the protection of our biodiversity (Nemoto 1992).

Stewardship Overview: Populations on nearshore reef communities need to be monitored for viability as related to water quality.