The species is threatened by wetland habitat loss on its breeding and wintering grounds⁵. Reclamation of coastal areas for industrial development poses a threat in Europe, and major river diversion and irrigation schemes threaten wintering areas in Niger and Nigeria⁵. The species is also threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland drainage, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) and the burning and mowing of reeds in Russia¹¹. The species suffers from over-exploitation in Europe², and is hunted for sport in North America^{9, 10}. It also suffers poisoning from lead shot ingestion in North America⁹, poisoning from white phosphorous (from firearms) ingestion in Alaska¹⁸, and reproductive impairment as a result of selenium (Se) accumulation in liver tissues (selenium contained in sub-surface agricultural drain-water used for wetland management in California led to bioaccumulation of the element in the food chain²¹. The pecies is predated by feral cats Felis catus and rats Rattus norvegicus on islands¹, and is susceptible to avian botulism¹² and avian influenza^{13, 17} so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. Utilisation The species is hunted recreationally in Denmark¹⁴ and the Po delta, Italy¹⁵, and is hunted commercially and recreationally in Iran¹⁶. The eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland¹⁹. The species is also traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria²⁰.